WEST BENGAL

History

When India gained independence in 1947, Bengal was partitioned along religious lines. The western part went to the Dominion of India(and was named West Bengal), while the eastern part went to the Dominion of Pakistan as a province called East Bengal (later renamed East Pakistan in 1956). The latter became the independent nation of Bangladesh in 1971.In 1950 the Princely State of Cooch Behar merged with West Bengal.[33] In 1955 the former French enclave of Chandannagar, which had passed into Indian control after 1950, was integrated into West Bengal; portions of Bihar were also subsequently merged with West Bengal. Both West and East Bengal experienced large influxes of refugees during and after partition in 1947. Refugee resettlement and related issues continued to play a significant role in the politics and socio-economic condition of the state.

During the 1970s and 1980s, severe power shortages, strikes, and a violent Naxalite movement damaged much of the state's infrastructure, leading to a period of economic stagnation. The Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971 resulted in the influx of millions of refugees to West Bengal, causing significant strains on its infrastructure.[35] The 1974 smallpox epidemic killed thousands. West Bengal politics underwent a major change when the Left Front won the 1977 assembly election, defeating the incumbent Indian National Congress. The Left Front, led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist), governed the state for the next three decades. 

The state's economic recovery gathered momentum after economic liberalisations were introduced in the mid-1990s by the central government. This was aided by the advent of information technology and IT-enabled services. Starting in the mid-2000s, armed activists conducted minor terrorist attacks in some parts of the state. while clashes with the administration took place at several controversial locations over the issue of industrial land acquisition, which became a decisive reason behind the defeat of the ruling Left Front government in the 2011 assembly election. Although the economy was severely damaged during the unrest in the 70's, the state has managed to revive it's economy, steadily throughout the years. The state has shown improvement regarding bandhs (strikes) and educational infrastructure.Significant strides have been made in reducing unemployment. Though the state suffers from substandard healthcare services, a lack of socio-economic development, poor infrastructure, unemployment, and civil violence.

Climate

West Bengal is on the eastern bottleneck of India, stretching from the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south. The state has a total area of 88,752 square kilometres (34,267 sq mi). The Darjeeling Himalayan hill region in the northern extreme of the state is a part of the eastern Himalayas mountain range. In this region is Sandakfu, which, at 3,636 m (11,929 ft), is the highest peak in the state.The narrow Terai region separates the hills from the North Bengal plains, which in turn transitions into the Ganges delta towards the south. The Rarh region intervenes between the Ganges delta in the east and the western plateau and high lands. A small coastal region is in the extreme south, while the Sundarbans mangrove forests form a geographical landmark at the Ganges delta.

The main river in West Bengal is the Ganges, which divides into two branches. One branch enters Bangladesh as the Padma, or Pôdda, while the other flows through West Bengal as the Bhagirathi River and Hooghly River. The Farakka barrage over the Ganges feeds the Hooghly branch of the river by a feeder canal, and its water flow management has been a source of lingering dispute between India and Bangladesh.The Teesta, Torsa, Jaldhaka, and Mahananda rivers are in the northern hilly region. The western plateau region has rivers such as the Damodar, Ajay, and Kangsabati. The Ganges delta and the Sundarbans area have numerous rivers and creeks. Pollution of the Ganges from indiscriminate waste dumped into the river is a major problem. Damodar, another tributary of the Ganges and once known as the "Sorrow of Bengal" (due to its frequent floods), has several dams under the Damodar Valley Project. At least nine districts in the state suffer from arsenic contamination of groundwater, and, as of 2006, an estimated 8.7 million people drink water containing arsenic above the World Health Organisation recommended limit of 10 µg/L. 

West Bengal's climate varies from tropical savanna in the southern portions to humid subtropical in the north. The main seasons are summer, the rainy season, a short autumn, and winter. While the summer in the delta region is noted for excessive humidity, the western highlands experience a dry summer like northern India, with the highest daytime temperature ranging from 38 °C (100 °F) to 45 °C (113 °F). At night, a cool southerly breeze carries moisture from the Bay of Bengal. In early summer, brief squalls and thunderstorms known as Kalbaisakhi, or Nor'westers, often occur.[62] West Bengal receives the Bay of Bengal branch of the Indian Ocean monsoon that moves in a southeast to northwest direction. Monsoons bring rain to the whole state from June to September. Heavy rainfall of above 250 centimetres (98 in) is observed in the Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, and Cooch Behar district. During the arrival of the monsoons, low pressure in the Bay of Bengal region often leads to the formation of storms in the coastal areas. Winter (December–January) is mild over the plains with average minimum temperatures of 15 °C (59 °F). A cold and dry northern wind blows in the winter, substantially lowering the humidity level. The Darjeeling Himalayan Hill region experiences a harsh winter, with occasional snowfall.

Culture

The Bengali language boasts a rich literary heritage that it shares with neighbouring Bangladesh. West Bengal has a long tradition of folk literature, evidenced by the Charyapada, Mangalkavya, Shreekrishna Kirtana, Thakurmar Jhuli, and stories related to Gopal Bhar. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Bengali literature was modernised in the works of authors such as Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Michael Madhusudan Dutt, Rabindranath Tagore, Kazi Nazrul Islam, Sharat Chandra Chattopadhyay, Jibanananda Das, and Manik Bandyopadhyay. In modern times, Jibanananda Das, Bibhutibhushan Bandopadhyay, Tarashankar Bandopadhyay, Manik Bandopadhyay, Ashapurna Devi, Shirshendu Mukhopadhyay, Saradindu Bandopadhyay, Buddhadeb Guha, Mahashweta Devi, Samaresh Majumdar, Sanjeev Chattopadhyay, Shakti Chattopadhyay, Buddhadeb Basu, Joy Goswami, and Sunil Gangopadhyay, among others, are well known. The Baul tradition, a unique heritage of Bengali folk music, has been influenced by regional music traditions.`Other folk music forms include Gombhira and Bhawaiya. Folk music in West Bengal is often accompanied by the ektara, a one-stringed instrument. West Bengal also has a heritage in North Indian classical music. "Rabindrasangeet", songs composed and set into tune by Rabindranath Tagore and "Nazrul geeti" (by Kazi Nazrul Islam) are popular. Also prominent are other musical forms like Dwijendralal, Atulprasad and Rajanikanta's songs, and "adhunik" or modern music from films and other composers. Shyama Sangeet, or songs in praise of the Hindu goddess Kali, are popular, especially during Kali Puja, a major festival of Bengal.There are significant examples of fine arts in Bengal from earlier times, including the terracotta art of Hindu temples and the Kalighat paintings. Bengal has been in the vanguard of modernism in fine arts. Abanindranath Tagore, called the father of modern Indian art, started the Bengal School of Art, one of whose goals was to promote the development of styles of art outside the European realist tradition that had been taught in art colleges under the British colonial administration. The movement had many adherents, including Gaganendranath Tagore, Ramkinkar Baij, Jamini Roy, and Rabindranath Tagore. After Indian Independence, important groups such as the Calcutta Group and the Society of Contemporary Artists were formed in Bengal and came to dominate the art scene in India

Education

West Bengal schools are run by the state government or by private organisations, including religious institutions. Instruction is mainly in English or Bengali, though Urdu is also used, especially in Central Kolkata. The secondary schools are affiliated with the Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE), the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), the National Institute of Open School (NIOS), or the West Bengal Board of Secondary Education. Under the 10+2+3 plan, after completing secondary school students typically enroll for two years in a junior college, also known as pre-university, or in schools with a higher secondary facility affiliated with the West Bengal Council of Higher Secondary Education or any central board. Students choose from one of three streams: liberal arts, commerce, or science. Upon completing the required coursework, students may enroll in general or professional degree programs..

Some of the best-known schools in the city are La Martiniere Calcutta, Calcutta Boys' School, St. James' School (Kolkata), St. Xavier's Collegiate School, and Loreto House, all of which consistently rank amongst the best schools in the country. Many of the schools in Kolkata and Darjeeling are renowned colonial-era establishments housed in buildings that are exemplars of neo-classical architecture. The famous schools of Darjeeling include St. Paul's, St. Joseph's North Point, Goethals Memorial School, and Dow Hill in Kurseong.

West Bengal has eighteen universities. Kolkata has played a pioneering role in the development of the modern education system in India. It is the gateway to the revolution of European education. Sir William Jones established the Asiatic Society in 1794 for promoting oriental studies. People such as Ram Mohan Roy, David Hare, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Alexander Duff and William Carey played leading roles in the setting up of modern schools and colleges in the city. 

The University of Calcutta, the oldest public university in India, has 136 affiliated colleges. Fort William College was established in 1810. The Hindu College was established in 1817. The Scottish Church College, which is the oldest Christian liberal arts college in South Asia, started its journey in 1830. In 1855 the Hindu College was renamed the Presidency College. In 2010 it was granted university status by the state government and was renamed Presidency UniversityOther higher education institutes of national importance in West Bengal include St. Xavier's College, Kolkata, Indian Institute of Foreign Trade, Indian Institute of Management Calcutta (the first IIM), Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata, Indian Statistical Institute, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur (the first IIT), Indian Institute of Engineering Science and Technology, Shibpur (the first IIEST), National Institute of Technology, Durgapur, and West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences. In 2003 the state government supported the creation of West Bengal University of Technology, West Bengal State University, and Gour Banga University.

Food

Bengali food that originated and evolved in the region of Bengal situated in the eastern subcontinent of India (presently divided into West Bengal in India and a separate nation called Bangladesh) is rich and varied in its platter starting from snacks to main courses to sweets. Although the food habits, tastes, preferences and choice of items vary with different districts, communities and religions, the basic course generally remains the same with rice and fish playing a dominant role. Probably this is why a Bengali is often typified as a ‘Maache-Bhaate-Bangali’ where Maach means fish and Bhaat means boiled rice in Bengali. A Bengali meal follows a multi-course tradition where food is served course-wise usually in a specific format, marking it as the only meal of the subcontinent to have evolved such convention. It is quite similar to the present day service à la russe style of French cuisine. Generally a Bengali meal starts with a ‘Shukto’ (a bitter preparation) followed by ‘Shak’ (leafy vegetables), Dal (pulses), variety of vegetables, fish/mutton/chicken/egg curry, chutney (sweet-sour saucy item) and ends with sweet dish like curd and other traditional sweets like sandesh or rosogolla. With time Bengalis have embraced different culinary influences as well including that of the Mughlas, Chinese and British subtly twisting these to suit their own taste-buds.

Bengal, with rich cultivating land, has traditionally been an agrarian society. The practice of multi-cropping is quite common in Bengal which has earned a fame for producing varied and good quality rice. Variety of vegetables and fruits are grown here round the year. The coastline region is also abundant with rivers like the Ganges, Padma, Meghna, Damodar, Mayurakshi, Teesta and Rupnarayan among others and other water bodies like ponds and lakes that offer the populace a wide variety of fish like ruhi, katla, pabda, tangra, koi, hilsa, pomfret and bhetki and other sea animals like shrimp, prawn and crabs. Cattle primarily used for agriculture and dairy farming in the region are prime source of variety of dairy products in Bengal starting from ghee, butter, curd and a huge variety of sweet dishes. Traditionally ghee and mastered oil were used for cooking, however the former has now been replaced by refined oil by the more modern and health conscious Bengalis. However it still finds place in different delicacies and special items to enhance taste and although not quite often but is still savoured with hot rice. Thus the products cultivated and found regionally dominate the platter of a Bengali. A daily meal of a Bengali comprise of various items served course-wise however is much simpler than the ones prepared during occasions and festivals. Fish, mutton, goat, chicken and eggs of chicken and ducks are usually consumed across Bengal while beef is consumed by the Muslim community. Mustard oil is mostly used in preparing different dishes barring a few delicacies. Use of whole black mustard seeds either as phoron or as a paste in different cuisines are also very much in league with Bengali dishes. Kashundi, a special sauce prepared out of mustard paste is savoured with Shak served with boiled rice and with different other fried items like fish fry.

TELENGANA

History

Telangana is one of the 29 states in India, located in southern India. Formed on 2 June 2014 as the youngest state in India, from the northwestern part of the Joint State of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana has an area of 112,077 square kilometres (43,273 sq mi), and a population of 35,193,978 (2011 census).[3] It is the twelfth largest state in India, and the twelfth most populated state in India. Its major cities include Hyderabad, Warangal, Nizamabad and Khammam. Telangana is bordered by the states of Maharashtra to the north and north west, Chhattisgarh to the north, Karnataka to the west and Andhra Pradesh to the east and south. Telangana had a history as the Telugu-speaking region of the princely state of Hyderabad, ruled by the Nizam of Hyderabad.[5] It joined the Union of India in 1948. In 1956, the Hyderabad state was dissolved as part of the linguistic reorganisation of states and Telangana was merged with former Andhra State to form Andhra Pradesh. Following a movement for separation, Telangana was awarded separate statehood on 2 June 2014. Hyderabad will continue to serve as the joint capital city for Andhra Pradesh and Telangana for no more than ten years.There have been several movements to revoke the merger of Telangana and Andhra, major ones occurring in 1969, 1972 and 2009. The movement for a new state of Telangana gained momentum in the 21st century by an initiative of Kalvakuntla Chandrashekar Rao, the chief of Telangana Rashtra Samithi, on 29 November 2009.On 9 December 2009 the Government of India announced the process of formation of the Telangana state. Violent protests led by people in the Coastal Andhra and Rayalseema regions occurred immediately after the announcement, and the decision was put on hold on 23 December 2009.The movement continued in Hyderabad and other districts of Telangana.[29There have been hundreds of claimed suicides,[30] strikes, protests and disturbances to public life demanding separate statehood.On 30 July 2013, the Congress Working Committee unanimously passed a resolution to recommend the formation of a separate Telangana state. After various stages the bill was placed in the Parliament of India in February 2014.In February 2014, Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 bill was passed by the Parliament of India for the formation of Telangana state comprising ten districts from north-western Andhra Pradesh. The bill received the assent of the President and published in the Gazette on 1 March 2014.The state of Telangana was officially formed on 2 June 2014. Kalvakuntla Chandrashekar Rao was elected as the first chief minister of Telangana, following elections in which the Telangana Rashtra Samithi party secured majority.Hyderabad will remain as the joint capital of both Telangana and Andhra Pradesh for a period not more than 10 years after that period Hyderabad shall be the capital of the State of Telangana and there shall be a new capital for the State of Andhra Pradesh.Andhra Pradesh picked Amaravathi as its capital; moved its secretariat in 2016 and legislature in March 2017 to its new capital 

Climate

Telangana is a semi-arid area and has a predominantly hot and dry climate. Summers start in March, and peak in May with average high temperatures in the 42 °C (108 °F) range. The monsoon arrives in June and lasts until September with about 755 mm (29.7 inches) of precipitation. A dry, mild winter starts in late .November and lasts until early February with little humidity and average temperatures in the 22–23 °C range.The Central Deccan Plateau dry deciduous forests ecoregion covers much of the state, including Hyderabad. The characteristic vegetation is woodlands of Hardwickia binata and Albizia amara. Over 80% of the original forest cover has been cleared for agriculture, timber harvesting, or cattle grazing, but large blocks of forest can be found in Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve and elsewhere. The more humid Eastern Highlands moist deciduous forests cover the Eastern Ghats in the eastern part of the state.

Culture 

Telangana culture combines cultural customs from Persian traditions, embedded during rule of the region by the Moghuls, Qutub Shahis and Nizams, with prominent and predominantly south Indian traditions and customs. The State has a rich tradition in classical music, painting and folk arts such as Burra katha, shadow puppet show, and perini Shiva Tandavam, Gusadi Dance, Kolatam. Charminar, Golconda Fort, Qutb Shahi Tombs, Chowmahalla Palace, Falaknuma Palace, Birla Mandir and Nagarjun sagar, Bhongir Fort, Warangal Fort, Khammam Fort, Bhuvangiri Fort are some of the monuments in and around Hyderabad.There are religious worship centers of different religions in the state. These include Muslim worship destinatoins such as Makkah Masjid near Charminar, Khairtabad Mosque, Koh-e-qaim, Mian Mishk Masjid, Toli Masjid and Spanish Mosque.

Hindu worship destinations include Bhadrachalam Temple, Gnana Saraswati Temple, Yadagirigutta Temple, Ramappa Temple, Vemulawada Raja Rajeswara temple, the Thousand Pillar Temple.

Christian worship centers include the Diocese of Dornakal of the Church of South India, Bahe Church of South India, and Medak Cathedral. There are also some Buddhist destinations, such as Nelakondapalli, Dhulikatta, Phanigiri and Kolanpaka.

Telugu cinema, also known by its sobriquet as Tollywood, is a part of Indian cinema producing films in the Telugu language, and is centered in the Hyderabad, Telangana neighbourhood of Film Nagar. In the early 1990s, the Telugu film industry had largely shifted from Chennai to Hyderabad. The Telugu film industry is the second-largest film industry in India next to Bollywood Film Industry.In the years 2005, 2006 and 2008 the Telugu film industry produced the largest number of films in India, exceeding the number of films produced in Bollywood. The industry holds the Guinness World Record for the largest film production facility in the world.

Food

Telangana is known for its distinctive cuisine that includes a wide variety of sweet and savoury dishes. Being a semi-arid state, the staple food in Telangana is not rice but millet. As a result, a variety of millets are consumed as is or used to make wholesome and rustic breads that are enjoyed with spicy accompaniments. In fact, the food of the region is the spiciest in the deccan region, thanks to the inclusion of red chillies in the preparations. Telangana food has many similarities to Andhra, Maharashtrian and Karnataka cuisine, given that it is bordered by these states. Here is a peek into the mouthwatering delicacies that Telangana has to offer.Telangana breakfast is similar to south Indian breakfast in most ways with idlis, dosas and upma being widely prepared. However, the most popular breakfast in Telangana is the Sarva Pindi, a flatbread made of a mixture of various flours flecked with peanuts, coriander, chillies, garlic, ginger, sesame seeds and chana dal.Rotis or flatbreads made of sorghum flour and pearl millet flour form the staple food of Telangana meals since millets are abundantly found in the region. The flour is mixed with water and seasoning to make dough which is then flattened to make rotis that are eaten with accompaniments.Telangana cuisine uses local produce like tamarind, mangoes and peanuts to add flavour to their accompaniments. Sautéed vegetables called koora and tamarind based gravies called pulusu are the main side dishes with every meal. The koora is often a dry vegetable like raw banana or potatoes that are roasted to perfection and seasoned with salt and chilli powder. The pulusuis made by simmering tamarind pulp that is spiked with chillies, onions, toasted sesame and cumin and is used to wash down the dry millet rotis.Telangana food is also popular for its meat preparations that are rustic and true to Telangana culture. Meats are simmered in fragrant gravies made with minimal spices that do not camouflage the original taste of the meat. The most popular meat preparation is the mamsam pulusu , made by slow cooking mutton with tamarind leaves and is eaten with rice.Telangana has plenty to offer to those with a sweet tooth. Most preparations use jaggery as a sweetener, lending the dish a rich caramel brown colour.In Telangana, one can dig into a wide array of specialties like Kobbari Pappu Payasam that is made with cooked moong dal, grated coconut and milk, laced with jaggery and cardamom that has a calming effect on the soul. Garijelu is another popular sweet dish that is nothing but a deep fried dumpling with a sweet coconut and sugar filling inside.

UTTARPRADESH

History

Uttar Pradesh is a state in northern India. Abbreviated as UP, it is the most populous state in the Republic of India as well as the most populous country subdivision in the world. The densely populated state, located in the northern region of the Indian subcontinent, has over 200 million inhabitants. It was created on 1 April 1937 as the United Provinces during British rule, and was renamed Uttar Pradesh in 1950. The state is divided into 18 divisions and 75 districts with the capital being Lucknow. The main ethnic group is the Hindi people, forming the demographic plurality. On 9 November 2000, a new state, Uttarakhand, was carved out from the state's Himalayan hill region. The two major rivers of the state, the Ganges and Yamuna, join at Allahabad and then flow as the Ganges further east. Hindi is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state.The state is bordered by Rajasthan to the west, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh and Delhi to the northwest, Uttarakhand and Nepal to the north, Bihar to the east, Madhya Pradesh to the south, and touches the states of Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh to the southeast. It covers 243,290 square kilometres (93,933 sq mi), equal to 7.33% of the total area of India, and is the fourth-largest Indian state by area. It is the second-largest Indian state by economy, with a GDP of ₹14.46 lakh crore (US$230 billion).Agriculture and service industries are the largest parts of the state's economy. The service sector comprises travel and tourism, hotel industry, real estate, insurance and financial consultancies.

The natives of the state are generally called Uttar Bhartiya, or more specifically either Awadhi, Bundelkhandi or Hindustani by their region of origin. Hinduism is practised by more than half of the population, followed by Islam. Uttar Pradesh was home to powerful empires of ancient and medieval India. The state has several historical, natural, and religious tourist destinations, such as, Agra, Varanasi, Allahabad, Kaushambi, Ballia, Shravasti, Gorakhpur, Chauri Chaura, Kushinagar, Lucknow, Jhansi, Bareilly, Budaun, Meerut, Mathura, Faizabad and hahjahanpur.

After India's independence, the United Provinces were renamed "Uttar Pradesh" ("northern province"), preserving UP as the acronym, notification regarding this was done in union gazette on January 24, 1950. The state has provided eight of India's prime ministers and is the source of the largest number of seats in the Lok Sabha. Despite its political influence, its poor record in economic development and administration, organised crime and corruption have kept it amongst India's backward states. The state has been affected by repeated episodes of caste and communal violence.In Ayodhya in December, 1992 the Babri Mosque was demolished by radical Hindu activists, leading to widespread violence across India. In 2000, northern districts of the state were separated to form the state of Uttarakhand

Uttar Pradesh, with a total area of 243,290 square kilometres (93,935 sq mi), is India’s fourth-largest state in terms of land area. It is situated on the northern spout of India and shares an international boundary with Nepal. The Himalayas border the state on the north, but the plains that cover most of the state are distinctly different from those high mountains.The larger Gangetic Plain region is in the north; it includes the Ganges-Yamuna Doab, the Ghaghra plains, the Ganges plains and the Terai. The smaller Vindhya Range and plateau region is in the south. It is characterised by hard rock strata and a varied topography of hills, plains, valleys and plateaus. The Bhabhar tract gives place to the terai area which is covered with tall elephant grass and thick forests interspersed with marshes and swamps. The sluggish rivers of the bhabhar deepen in this area, their course running through a tangled mass of thick undergrowth. The terai runs parallel to the bhabhar in a thin strip. The entire alluvial plain is divided into three sub-regions. The first in the eastern tract consisting of 14 districts which are subject to periodical floods and droughts and have been classified as scarcity areas. These districts have the highest density of population which gives the lowest per capita land. The other two regions, the central and the western are comparatively better with a well-developed irrigation system.They suffer from waterlogging and large-scale user tracts. In addition, the area is fairly arid. The state has more than 32 large and small rivers; of them, the Ganges, Yamuna, Saraswati, Sarayu, Betwa, and Ghaghara are larger and of religious importance in Hinduism.

Cultivation is intensive. The valley areas have fertile and rich soil. There is intensive cultivation on terraced hill slopes, but irrigation facilities are deficient. The Siwalik Range which forms the southern foothills of the Himalayas, slopes down into a boulder bed called 'bhadhar'. The transitional belt running along the entire length of the state is called the terai and bhabhar area. It has rich forests, cutting across it are innumerable streams which swell into raging torrents during the monsoon.

Climate

Uttar Pradesh has a humid subtropical climate and experiences four seasons. The winter in January and February is followed by summer between March and May and the monsoon season between June and September.Summers are extreme with temperatures fluctuating anywhere between 0 °C and 50 °C in parts of the state. The Gangetic plain varies from semiarid to sub-humid. The mean annual rainfall ranges from 650 mm in the southwest corner of the state to 1000 mm in the eastern and southeastern parts of the state. Primarily a summer phenomenon, the Bay of Bengal branch of the Indian monsoon is the major bearer of rain in most parts of state. It is the south-west monsoon which brings most of the rain here, although rain due to the western disturbances and north-east monsoon also contribute small quantities towards the overall precipitation of the state.

The rain in UP can vary from an annual average of 170 cm in hilly areas to 84 cm in Western U.P Given the concentration of most of this rainfall in the four months of the monsoon, excess rain can lead to floods and shortage to droughts. As such, these two phenomena, floods and droughts, commonly recur in the state. The climate of the Vindhya Range and plateau is subtropical with a mean annual rainfall between 1000 and 1200 mm, most of which comes during the monsoon.Typical summer months are from March to June, with maximum temperatures ranging from 30 to 38 °C.There is low relative humidity of around 20% and dust-laden winds blow throughout the season. In summers, hot winds called loo blow all across Uttar Pradesh.

Education

Uttar Pradesh has a long tradition of education, although historically it was primarily confined to the elite class and religious schools. Sanskrit-based learning formed the major part of education from the Vedic to the Gupta periods. As cultures travelled through the region they brought their bodies of knowledge with them, adding Pali, Persian and Arabic scholarship to the community. These formed the core of Hindu-Buddhist-Muslim education until the rise of British colonialism. The present schools-to-university system of education owes its inception and development in the state (as in the rest of the country) to foreign Christian missionaries and the British colonial administration. Schools in the state are either managed by the government or by private trusts. Hindi is used as a medium of instruction in most of the schools except those affiliated to the CBSE or the Council for ICSE boards. Under the 10+2+3 plan, after completing secondary school, students typically enroll for 2 years in a junior college, also known as pre-university, or in schools with a higher secondary facility affiliated with the Uttar Pradesh Board of High School and Intermediate Education or a central board. Students choose from one of three streams, namely liberal arts, commerce, or science. Upon completing the required coursework, students may enroll in general or professional degree programs.

Food

A typical day-to-day traditional vegetarian meal of Uttar Pradesh, like any other North Indian thali, consists of roti (flatbread), chawal, dal, sabji, raita and papad. Many people still drink the traditional drink chaach (traditional Butter milk) with meals. On festive occasions, usually 'tava' (flat pan for roti) is considered inauspicious, and instead fried foods are consumed. A typical festive thali consists of Puri, Kachauri, sabji, pulav, papad, raita, salad and desserts.

Many communities have their own particular style of cuisines, such as the Jains, Kayasths and Muslims. There are also certain sub-regional delicacies. Awadhi cuisine is world-famous for dishes such as kebab, biryani, keema and nihari. Sweets occupy an important place in the Hindu diet and are eaten at social ceremonies. People make distinctive sweetmeats from milk products, including khurchan, peda, gulabjamun, petha, makkhan malai, and chamcham. The chaat in Lucknow and Banarasi Paan is known across India for its flavour and ingredients.

Awadhi cuisine is from the city of Lucknow. The cuisine consists of both vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes. Awadh has been greatly influenced by Mughal cooking techniques, and the cuisine of Lucknow bears similarities to those of Central Asia, Kashmir, Punjab and Hyderabad; and the city is known for Nawabi foods. The bawarchis and rakabdars of Awadh gave birth to the dum style of cooking or the art of cooking over a slow fire, which has become synonymous with Lucknow today. Their spread consisted of elaborate dishes like kebabs, kormas, biryani, kaliya, nahari-kulchas, zarda, sheermal, roomali rotis, and warqi parathas. The richness of Awadh cuisine lies not only in the variety of cuisine but also in the ingredients used like mutton, paneer, and rich spices including cardamom and saffron.

Mughlai cuisine is a style of cooking developed in the Indian subcontinent by the imperial kitchens of the Mughal Empire. It represents the cooking styles used in North India, especially Uttar Pradesh. The cuisine is strongly influenced by the cuisine of Central Asia, and has in turn strongly similarities to the regional cuisines of Kashmir and the Punjab region. The tastes of Mughlai cuisine vary from extremely mild to spicy, and is often associated with a distinctive aroma and the taste of ground and whole spices.

Culture

The people of Uttar Pradesh dress in a variety of traditional and Western styles. Traditional styles of dress include colourful draped garments—such as sari for women and dhoti or lungi for men and tailored clothes such as salwar kameez for women and kurta-pyjama for men. Men often sport head-gear like topi or pagri. Sherwani is a more formal male dress and is frequently worn along with chooridar on festive occasions. European-style trousers and shirts are also common among the men.

Diwali (celebrated between mid-October and mid-December) and Rama Navami are popular festivals in Uttar Pradesh. Kumbh Mela, organised in the month of Maagha , is a major festival held every twelve years in rotation at Allahabad, Haridwar, Ujjain, on the river Ganges and Nasik on the Godavari river. Lath mar Holi is a local celebration of the Hindu festival of Holi. It takes place well before the actual Holi in the town of Barsana near Mathura. Taj Mahotsav, held annually at Agra, is a colourful display of the culture of the Braj area. Buddha Purnima, which marks the birth of Gautama Buddha, is a major Hindu and Buddhist festival, while Christmas is celebrated by the minority Christian population.

Uttar Pradesh has produced musicians, including Anup Jalota, Girija Devi, Kishan Maharaj, Vikash Maharaj Naushad Ali, Ravi Shankar, Shubha Mudgal, Siddheshwari Devi, Talat Mehmood, and Ustad Bismillah Khan. The Ghazal singer Begum Akhtar was a native of Uttar Pradesh. The region's folk heritage includes songs called rasiya (especially popular in Braj), which celebrate the divine love of Radha and Krishna. Other forms of music are kajari, sohar, qawwali, rasiya, thumri, birha, chaiti, and sawani. Traditional dance and musical styles are taught at the Bhatkhande Music Institute University in Lucknow, named after the musician Pandit Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande.

Kathak, a classical dance form, owes its origin to the state of Uttar Pradesh.The dance form is connected to classical Hindustani music where the rhythmic nimbleness of the feet is accompanied by either Tabla or Pakhawaj. Four of the six schools of this dance form, Lucknow gharana, Ajrara gharana, Farukhabad gharana and Benares gharana, are situated in Uttar Pradesh

Several texts and hymns of the Vedic literature were composed in Uttar Pradesh. The festival of Guru Purnima is dedicated to Sage Vyasa, and also known as Vyasa Purnima as it is the day which is believed to be his birthday and also the day he divided the Vedas. There is a long literary and folk Hindi-language tradition in the state. In the 19th and 20th century, Hindi literature was modernised by authors such as Jaishankar Prasad, Maithili Sharan Gupt, Munshi Premchand, Suryakant Tripathi Nirala, Babu Gulabrai, Sachchidananda Hirananda Vatsyayan 'Agyeya', Rahul Sankrityayan, Harivansh Rai Bachchan, Dharamvir Bharati, Subhadra Kumari Chauhan, Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, Dushyant Kumar, Hazari Prasad Dwivedi, Acharya Kuber Nath Rai, Bharatendu Harishchandra, Kamleshwar Prasad Saxena, Shivmangal Singh Suman, Mahadevi Varma, and Vibhuti Narain Rai.

The state is sometimes called the 'Hindi heartland of India'. Hindi became the language of state administration with the Uttar Pradesh Official Language Act of 1951. A 1989 amendment to the act added Urdu, as an additional language of the state. Linguistically, the state spreads across the Central, East-Central, and Eastern zones of the Hindi Belt, the major Hindi dialects of the state being Awadhi, Bhojpuri, Bundeli, Braj Bhasha, Kannauji and the vernacular form of Khariboli.

MIZORAM

History

The origin of the Mizos, like those of many other tribes in the northeastern India, is shrouded in mystery. The people living in the Mizo Hills were generally referred to as the Cucis or Kukis by their neighbouring ethnic groups which was also a term adopted by the British writers. The claim that 'The Kukis are the earliest known residents of the Mizo hills area,' must be read in this light.The majority of the tribes classified as "Mizo" today most likely migrated to their present territories from the neighbouring countries in several waves, starting around 1500 CE. 

Before the British Raj, the various Mizo clans lived in autonomous villages. The tribal chiefs enjoyed an eminent position in the gerontocratic Mizo society. The various clans and subclans practised slash-and-burn, locally called jhum cultivation -a form of subsistence agriculture.]The chiefs were the absolute rulers of their respective clans' territories (ram), although they remained under the nominal political jurisdictions of the Rajas of Manipur, Tripura and Burma. There were many instances of tribal raids and head-hunting led by the village chieftains. Head-hunting was a practice which involved ambushing, taking slaves and cutting off the heads of fighters from the enemy tribe, bringing it back, and displaying it at the entrance of the tribal village.

By the time India gained independence from the British Empire, the number of tribal chiefs had increased to over 200. The educated elites among the Mizos campaigned against the tribal chiefdoms under the banner of the Mizo Union. As a result of their campaign, the hereditary rights of the 259 chiefs were abolished under the Assam-Lushai District Act, 1954. Village courts were re-implemented in the Mizo region along with other parts of Assam. All of these regions were frustrated by these arrangements and by centralised Assam governance. The Mizos were particularly dissatisfied with the government's inadequate response to the 1959–60 mautam famine. The Mizo National Famine Front, a body formed for famine relief in 1959, later developed into a new political organisation, the Mizo National Front (MNF) in 1961. A period of protests and armed insurgency followed in the 1960s, with the MNF seeking independence from India.[30]

In 1971, the government agreed to convert the Mizo Hills into a Union Territory, which came into being as Mizoram in 1972. Following the Mizoram Peace Accord (1986) between the Government and the MNF, Mizoram was declared a full-fledged state of India in 1987. Mizoram was given two seats in the Parliament, one each in the Lok Sabha and in the Rajya Sabha.The region has been peaceful in recent decades. Between 2006 and 2013, no more than two civilians have died each year from protest-related violence (or less than 0.2 people per 100,000). The world's average annual death rate from intentional violence, in recent years, has been 7.9 per 100,000 people. 

Climate

Mizoram has a mild climate, being relatively cool in summer 20 to 29 °C (68 to 84 °F)but progressively warmer most probably due to climate change with temperature crossing 30 degrees Celsius with winter temperatures ranging from 7 to 22 °C (45 to 72 °F). The region is influenced by monsoons, raining heavily from May to September with little rain in the dry (cold) season. The climate pattern is moist tropical to moist sub-tropical, with average state rainfall 254 centimetres (100 in) per annum. In the capital Aizawl, rainfall is about 215 centimetres (85 in) and in Lunglei, another major centre, about 350 centimetres (140 in). The state is in a region where cyclones and landslides can cause weather-related emergencies. 

The state gets a good rainfall. During rains the climate in the lower hills is humid and enervating. Malarial fever was a common feature during and after rains particularly in the lower area. It is quite cool and pleasant on the higher hills, even during the hot season. A special feature of the climate here is the occurrence of violent storms during March-April. Heavy storms come from the north-west and they sweep over the hills in the entire state. Rainfall is generally evenly distributed. The crops seldom suffer from drought. Mizoram, as a whole, gets an average rainfall of about 3,000 mm with Aizawal town having 2,380 mm and Lunglei 3,178 mm. Temperature in the state varies from about 12o C in winter to about 30oC in summer. Winter is from November to February. There is generally no rain or very little rain during the winter months. Winter is followed by spring which starts at the end of February and continues till the middle of April. In April, storms occur and the summer starts. In April and May temperature goes up to 30oC. The hills are covered by a haze. Heavy rains start in June and continue upto August. September and October are the autumn months when the rains cease and the temperature is usually between 19oC and 25oC.

Education 

The first primary school was set up in 1898 at Aizawl by Christian missionaries. The state has long enjoyed higher literacy rates than average literacy rates for India. In 1961, the literacy was 51%. By 2011 census, it had reached 92%, compared to 74% average for India. Mizoram is second only to Kerala. 

There were 3,894 schools in Mizoram as of 2012. Of these, 42% are publicly owned and managed by Central/State governments, 28% are private without government subsidies, 21% are private with government subsidies, and the rest are primary and middle schools that are government financed by run by three Autonomous District Councils of Mizoram. The teacher-pupil ratio is about 1:20 for primary, 1:9 for middle School, 1:13 for high, and 1:15 for higher secondary schools. 

There are several educational establishments under the umbrella of the Ministry of Education, including universities, colleges and other institutions. Within Mizoram University, there are 29 undergraduate departments including 2 professional institutions affiliated with the university. The state had 22 other colleges, and the total college enrolment was approximately 10,600 students in 2012. Other well known institutes are National Institute of Technology Mizoram, ICFAI University, Mizoram, College of Veterinary Sciences & Animal Husbandry, Selesih, Aizawl, Mizoram and Regional Institute of Paramedical and Nursing Aizawl.

Mizoram schools are run by the state and central government or by private organisation. Instruction is mainly in English and Mizo. Under the 10+2+3 plan, students may enroll in general or professional degree programs after passing the Higher Secondary Examination (the grade 12 examination). Mizoram has one Central University (Mizoram University), one engineering college (National Institute of Technology Mizoram) and one private university (a branch of the Institute of Chartered Financial Analysts of India).

Culture

The culture of the Mizo tribes and its social structure has undergone tremendous change over 100 years, since the arrival of Christianity in the late 1890s. Contemporary people of Mizoram celebrate Christmas, Easter and other Christian celebrations replacing many of old tribal customs and practices.

The growth of Christianity, scholars state,was shaped from a foundation of cultural, religious and socio-political structure. One such foundation cultural element of Mizo people was Hnatlang, states Hlawndo, which literally means social work, united labour or community labour (the word hna‘ means job or work in the Mizo language; and tlang‘ means together and mutual). The tribal members who were absent from such social work (for reasons other than illness and disability) were penalised — a form of strong peer pressure. Jhum cultivation and raids on neighbouring tribes required Hnatlang, the spirit of united labour and equal sharing of the end result.

A consequence of Hnatlang was the culture of Tlawmngaihna, which does not have a direct English translation. Tlawmngaihna as cultural concept incorporates behaviour that is self-sacrificing, self-denying, doing what an occasion demands unselfishly and without concern for inconvenience caused, persevering, stoical, stout-hearted, plucky, brave, firm, independent, loath to lose one's good reputation. Thus, after a fire or landslide or flood damage, the Mizo culture is one of spontaneous humble social work without demands or expectations.

Traditional festivals in Mizoram often revolved around stages of jhum cultivation or the seasons.Community festivals were called kut in the local language, and there were major and minor kuts such as Chapchar Kut, Thalfavang Kut, Mim Kut and Pawl Kut. Chapchar Kut was the festival of spring (February/March), just before jhum started and land was cut-and-burnt for a new crop. Chapchar Kut was most anticipated by youth, a major festival and involved dancing and feasts. Thalfavang Kut celebrated completion of weeding of the jhum crop fields. Mim Kut was the festival dedicated to ancestors after first maize crop was collected, while Pawl Kut celebrated the end of harvest and the start of new year. These festivals slowly disappeared as Christianity became established in Mizoram.

Chapchar Kut was reintroduced and revived in 1973 by Mizo people to celebrate their heritage. Before Christianity arrived in Mizoram, home-brewed alcohol and many meat delicacies were part of the Chapchar celebrations. Now, with Mizoram's state law as a dry state, the youth busy themselves with music and community dancing.[107] Along with reviving traditional festivals, the community has been reviving traditional dances at these festivals, for example, dances such as Cheraw, Khuallam, Chheihlam .Almost all foreign nationals can also get visitor pass on arrival, and face the same requirements as domestic tourists. However, they additionally have to register themselves with state police within 24 hours of arrival, a formality that most resorts can provide. Citizens of Afghanistan, China and Pakistan and foreign nationals having their origin in these countries are required to get the pass through the Indian consulate or from the Ministry of Home Affairs in New Delhi, before they arrive in Mizoram. 

Mizoram is a place with flora and fauna rich landscape and pleasant climate. The tourism ministry regulates the maintenance and upgrade of tourist lodges throughout the state. 

The state is a bird watcher's destination. For Mrs. Hume's pheasant (Syrmaticus humiae),Mizoram is a stronghold.Wild water buffalo, Sumatran rhinoceros, elephants and other mammals have been spotted in the past

Food

The cuisine of Mizoram differs from that of most of India, though it shares characteristics to other regions of Northeast India and North India. Rice is the staple food of Mizoram, while Mizos love to add non-vegetarian ingredients in every dish. Fish, chicken, pork and beef are popular meats among Mizos. Dishes are served on fresh banana leaves. Most of the dishes are cooked in mustard oil. Meals tend to be less spicy than in most of India. Mizos love eating boiled vegetables along with rice. A popular dish is bai, made from boiling vegetables (spinach, eggplant, beans, and other leafy vegetables) with bekang fermented soya beans or Sa-um, a fermented pork and served with rice. Sawhchiar is another common dish, made of rice and cooked with pork or chicken.

Mizoram is one of the main attractions for the tourists who plan to visit this Indian state on a vacation. The Mizoram cuisine offers mainly non-vegetarian delicacies. The people who belong to this place do eat vegetables, but they prefer to add some non-vegetarian ingredients to each and every dish they prepare. 

One of the main specialties of the food of Mizoram is that it is very different from the food available in other parts of the country of India other than the north-east. However, the food in Mizoram is quite similar to the food in the other north-eastern states of India. The cuisine of the north-eastern states of the country including Mizoram has an identity of its own. The staple food of these people is primarily rice. One of the most popular non-vegetarian items of the people of the state is fish. The most commonly used medium of cooking is mustard oil. The Mizos do not like to eat oily food and they prefer to cook most of the dishes with little oil. Some of the most demanded delicacies of Mizoram are made with ingredients like bamboo shoots and ducks. Some very well known Mizo dishes are Misa Mach Poora, Panch Phoron Taarkari, which is actually a grilled preparation of shrimps, Dal with Eggs, Poora Mach and Koat Pitha. 

ANDHRA PRADESH

Andhra Pradesh

Country	India
Formation	1 October 1953; 64 years ago (carved out of the erstwhile composite Madras State as Andhra State) 1 November 1956; 60 years ago (merger with Telangana region from the erstwhile Hyderabad State to form the Joint State of Andhra Pradesh) 2 June 2014; 3 years ago (merger with Telangana dissolved by the formation of Telangana State)[1]
Capital city	Amaravati (de facto) Hyderabad (de jure)†
Largest city	Visakhapatnam
Districts	13
Government
• Body	Government of Andhra Pradesh
• Governor	E. S. L. Narasimhan
• Chief Minister	N. Chandrababu Naidu (TDP)
• Legislature	Bicameral (175 + 58 seats)
• Lok sabha constituencies	25
• High Court	High Court of Judicature at Hyderabad††
Area[2]
• Total	162,970 km2 (62,920 sq mi)
Area rank	7th
Population (2011)[3]
• Total	49,386,799
• Rank	10th
• Density	308/km2 (800/sq mi)
Demonym(s)	Telugu / Andhraite
Time zone	IST (UTC+05:30)
UN/LOCODE	AP
Vehicle registration	AP
Literacy rate	67.41% (2011)
Official language	Telugu
Coastline	974 kilometres (605 mi)
Website	www.ap.gov.in
^† The Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 states that Hyderabad is joint capital of both Telangana and Andhra Pradesh states for a period of time not exceeding 10 years. A new capital is planned to be developed between Guntur and Vijaywada. †† Common for Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.

Andhra Pradesh (/ˌɑːndrə prəˈdɛʃ/) ( pronunciation (help·info)) is one of the 29 states of India, situated on the southeastern coast of the country. The state is the seventh-largest state in India covering an area of 162,970 km² (62,920 sq mi).^[4] As per 2011 Census of India, the state is tenth-largest by population with 49,386,799 inhabitants.

On 2 June 2014, the north-western portion of the state was bifurcated to form a new state of Telangana. Andhra Pradesh's longtime capital, Hyderabad, was transferred to Telangana as part of the division. However, in accordance with the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014, Hyderabad will remain the de jure capital of both Andhra Pradesh and Telangana states for a period of time not exceeding 10 years.^[5] The new riverfront proposed capital in Guntur district is Amaravati, which is under the jurisdiction of APCRDA.^[6] The Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) of the state in the 2016–2017 financial year at current prices stood at ₹6,800.3 billion (US$110 billion).^[7]

The state has a coastline of 974 km (605 mi) with jurisdiction over nearly 15,000 km² territorial waters, the second longest among all the states of India after Gujarat.^[4][8] It is bordered by Telangana in the north-west, Odisha in the north-east, Karnataka in the west, Tamil Nadu in the south and the water body of Bay of Bengal in the east. A small enclave of 30 km² (12 sq mi) of Yanam, a district of Puducherry, lies south of Kakinada in the Godavari delta to the east of the state.^[9]

Andhra Pradesh is composed of two regions: Coastal Andhra, located along the Bay of Bengal, and Rayalaseema, in the inland southwestern part of the state.^[10] These two regions comprise 13 districts, with 9 in Coastal Andhra and 4 in Rayalaseema. Visakhapatnam, located on the Bay of Bengal in North Coastal Andhra is the largest city and commercial hub of the state with a GDP of $43.5 billion, followed in population and GDP by Vijayawada, which is located on the Krishna River and which has a GDP of $3 billion as of 2010.^[11][12]

Andhra Pradesh hosted 121.8 million visitors in 2015, a 30% growth in tourist arrivals over the previous year.^[13] The Tirumala Venkateswara Temple in Tirupati is one of the world's most visited religious sites, with 18.25 million visitors per year.^[14] Other pilgrimage centers in Andhra Pradesh include the Ameen Peer Dargah in Kadapa, the Mahachaitya at Amaravathi, and the Kanaka Durga Temple in Vijayawada, while the state's natural attractions include the beaches of Visakhapatnam, hill stations such as the Araku Valley and Horsley Hills, and the island of Konaseema in the Godavari River delta.

History

Toponomy

A tribe named Andhra was mentioned in Sanskrit texts such as Aitareya Brahmana (800-500 BCE). According to Aitareya Brahmana of the Rig Veda, the Andhras left north India and settled in south India.^[15][16][17] The Satavahanas have been mentioned by the names Andhra, Andhrara-jatiya and Andhrabhrtya in the Puranic literature.^[18][19] They did not refer themselves as Andhra in any of their coins or inscriptions; it is possible that they were termed as Andhras because of their ethnicity or because their territory included the Andhra region.^[20]

Early and medieval history

Archaeological evidence from places such as Amaravati, Dharanikota and Vaddamanu suggests that the Andhra region was part of the Mauryan Empire. Amaravati might have been a regional centre for Mauryan rule. After the death of Emperor Ashoka, Mauryan rule weakened around 200 BCE, and was replaced by several smaller kingdoms in the Andhra region.^[21]

The Satavahana dynasty dominated the Deccan region from the 1st century BC to the 3rd century.^[22] The later Satavahanas made Dharanikota and Amaravathi their capital, which according to the Buddhists is the place where Nagarjuna, the philosopher of Mahayana lived in the 2nd and 3rd centuries.^[23] The Andhra Ikshvakus, with their capital at Vijayapuri, succeeded the Satavahanas in the Krishna River valley in the later half of the 2nd century.^[24] Pallavas, who were originally executive officers under the Satavahana kings, were not a recognised political power before the 2nd century AD and were swept away by the Western Chalukyan invasion, led by Pulakesin II in the first quarter of the 7th century CE.^[25] After the downfall of the Ikshvakus, the Vishnukundinas were the first great dynasty in the 5th and 6th centuries, and held sway over the entire Andhra country, including Kalinga and parts of Telangana. They played an important role in the history of Deccan during the 5th and 6th century CE, with Eluru, Amaravathi and Puranisangam.^[26]

The Salankayanas were an ancient dynasty that ruled the Andhra region between Godavari and Krishna with their capital at Vengi (modern Pedavegi) from 300 to 440 CE.^[27] The Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi, whose dynasty lasted for around 500 years from the 7th century until 1130 C.E., eventually merged with the Chola empire. They continued to rule under the protection of the Chola empire until 1189 C.E., when the kingdom succumbed to the Hoysalas and the Yadavas.^[28] The roots of the Telugu language have been seen on inscriptions found near the Guntur district and from others dating to the rule of Renati Cholas in the fifth century CE.^[29][30]

Kakatiyas ruled Andhra Pradesh state for nearly 200 years and constructed several forts. They were succeeded by the Musunuri Nayaks.^{[citation needed]}

The Reddy dynasty (1325–1448 CE) was established by Prolaya Vema Reddi in the early 14th century, who ruled from present day Kondaveedu. Prolaya Vema Reddi was part of the confederation of states that started a movement against the invading Turkic Muslim armies of the Delhi Sultanate in 1323 CE and succeeded in repulsing them from Warangal.^[31] They constructed Kondaveedu Fort which they ruled between 1328–1428, before it was taken over by the Gajpathis of Orissa, and later ravaged by the Muslim rulers of the Bahmani kingdom in 1458. The Vijayanagara emperor Krishnadevaraya captured it in 1516. The Golconda Sultans fought for the fort in 1531, 1536 and 1579, and Sultan Quli Qutb Shah captured it in 1579, renaming it Murtuzanagar. Again it was reconquered by Vijayanagarans who overthrew sultunate rule across the entirety of modern-day Andhra Pradesh (excluding Telangana). After this rebellion, the Bahmani sultans launched no further military compaigns outside their kingdoms, because the Marathas soon emerged as the strongest power in India.^[32][33][34] Efforts are in progress to classify Kondaveedu Fort as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.^[35][36]

Pemmasani Nayaks, the greatest kings during Vijayanagara times ruled parts of Andhra Pradesh state with Gandikota as capital for nearly 300 years.^[37]

The signature Lepakshi Nandi Bull

Rajmahal of Chandragiri Fort

The Vijayanagara Empire originated in the Deccan Plateau region in the early 14th century. It was established in 1336 by Harihara Raya I and his brother Bukka Raya I of the Sangama Dynasty.^[38][39][40] The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its current form.^[41]

Modern history

Harihara and Bukka, who served as treasury officers of the Kakatiyas of Warangal, founded the Vijayanagara Empire.^[42] In 1347 CE, an independent Muslim state, the Bahmani Sultanate, was established in south India by Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah in a revolt against the Delhi Sultanate. The Qutb Shahi dynasty held sway over the Andhra country for about two hundred years from the early part of the sixteenth century to the end of the seventeenth century.^[43]

In the early nineteenth century Northern Circars was ceded to the British East India Company and became part of the Madras Presidency. Eventually this region emerged as the Coastal Andhra region. Later the Nizam rulers of Hyderabad ceded five territories to the British that eventually became the Rayalaseema region. The Nizams retained control of the interior provinces as the princely state of Hyderabad, acknowledging British rule in return for local autonomy. However, Komaram Bheem, a tribal leader, started his fight against the erstwhile Asaf Jahi Dynasty for the liberation of Hyderabad State.^[44] Meanwhile, the French occupied Yanam, in the Godavari delta, and (save for periods of British control) would hold it until 1954. In 1947 Vizianagaram was the largest Hindu princely state in Andhra Pradesh.

India became independent from the United Kingdom in 1947. The Nizam wanted to retain the independence of the Princely Hyderabad State from India, but the people of the region launched a movement to join the Indian Union. The state of Hyderabad was forcibly joined to the Republic of India with Operation Polo in 1948.^[45]

Post independence

See also: Andhra State and Vishalandhra Movement

In an effort to gain an independent state based on linguistic identity, and to protect the interests of the Telugu-speaking people of Madras State, Potti Sreeramulu fasted to death in 1952. As Madras became a bone of contention, in 1949 a JVP committee report stated "Andhra Province could be formed provided the Andhras give up their claim on the city of Madras (now Chennai)". After Potti Sreeramulu's death, the Telugu-speaking area of Andhra State was carved out of Madras State on 1 October 1953, with Kurnool as its capital city.^[46] On the basis of a gentlemen's agreement of 1 November 1956, the States Reorganisation Act formed Andhra Pradesh by merging Andhra State with the Telugu-speaking areas of the already existing Hyderabad State.^[47] Hyderabad was made the capital of the new state. The Marathi-speaking areas of Hyderabad State merged with Bombay State and the Kannada-speaking areas were merged with Mysore state.

In February 2014, the Andhra Pradesh Reorganisation Act, 2014 bill was passed by the Parliament of India for the formation of Telangana state comprising ten districts. Hyderabad will remain as a joint capital for not exceeding ten years. The new state of Telangana came into existence on 2 June 2014 after approval from the President of India.

 

Culture

Main article: Culture of Andhra Pradesh

Andhra Pradesh has rich culture and heritage. Kuchipudi, the state dance originated in the village of Kuchipudi in Krishna district, had entered the Guinness World Records for performing Mahabrinda Natyam with a total of 6,117 dancers in Vijayawada. It had thirteen geographical indications in categories of agricultural handicrafts, foodstuff and textiles as per Geographical Indications of Goods (Registration and Protection) Act, 1999. It increased to fifteen with the addition of Banaganapalle Mangoes and Bandar laddu. The other GI tagged goods are, Bobbili Veena, Budithi Bell and Brass Craft, Dharmavaram Handloom Pattu Sarees and Paavadas, Guntur Sannam, Kondapalli Toys, Machilipatnam Kalamkari, Mangalagiri Sarees and Fabrics, Srikalahasti Kalamkari, Tirupati Laddu, Uppada Jamdani Sari and Venkatagiri Sari. and ponduru kardaru and

Arts, crafts and artifacts

Kondapalli Toys at a house in Vijayawada

Machilipatnam and Srikalahasti Kalamkari are the two unique textile art forms practised in India.There are also other notable handicrafts present in the state, like the soft limestone idol carvings of Durgi. Etikoppaka in Visakhapatnam district is notable for its Lac industry, producing lacquered wooden^.

The state has many museums, which features a varied collection of ancient sculptures, paintings, idols, weapons, cutlery and inscriptions, and religious artifacts such as the Amaravati Archaeological Museum, Visakha Museum and Telugu Cultural Museum in Visakhapatnam displays the history of the pre-Independence and the Victoria Jubilee Museum in Vijayawada with large collection of artifacts.

Literature

Main article: Telugu literature

Nannayya, Tikkana and Yerrapragada form the trinity who translated the Sanskrit epic Mahabharata into Telugu language. Nannayya wrote the first treatise on Telugu grammar called Andhra Shabda Chintamani in Sanskrit, as there was no grammatical work in Telugu prior to that. Pothana is the poet who composed the classic Srimad Maha Bhagavatamu, a Telugu translation of Sri Bhagavatam. Vemana is notable for his philosophical poems. The Vijayanagara emperor Krishnadevaraya wrote Amuktamalyada. Telugu literature after Kandukuri Veeresalingam is termed as Adhunika Sahityam. He is known as Gadya Tikkana and was the author of Telugu social novel, Satyavati Charitam. Jnanpith Award winners include Sri Viswanatha Satya Narayana. The Andhra Pradesh native and revolutionary poet Sri Sri brought new forms of expressionism into Telugu literature.

Music and films

Main articles: Music of Andhra Pradesh and Telugu theatre

See also: Shadow Puppets of Andhra Pradesh

Kuchipudi dance

Many composers of Carnatic music like Annamacharya, Kshetrayya, and Bhadrachala Ramadas were of Telugu descent. Modern Carnatic music composers and singers like Ghantasala, Sujatha Puligella and M. Balamuralikrishna are also of Telugu descent. The Telugu film industry hosts many music composers and playback singers such as S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, P. Susheela, S. Janaki, P B Srinivas. Folk songs are popular in the many rural areas of the state. Forms such as the Burra katha and Poli are still performed today.Harikathaa Kalakshepam (or Harikatha) involves the narration of a story, intermingled with various songs relating to the story. Harikatha was originated in Andhra. Burra katha is an oral storytelling technique with the topic be either a Hindu mythological story or a contemporary social issue. Rangasthalam is an Indian theatre in the Telugu language, based predominantly in Andhra Pradesh. Gurazada Apparao wrote the play, Kanyasulkam in 1892, which is often considered the greatest play in the Telugu language.. Pullaiah is cited as the father of Telugu theatre movement.

The Telugu film industry had largely shifted from Chennai to Hyderabad. The Telugu film culture (or, "Tollywood") is the second -largest film industry in India next to Bollywood Film Industry.Prolific film producer from the state, D. Ramanaidu holds a Guinness Record for the most number of films produced by a person. In the years 2005, 2006 and 2008 the Telugu film industry produced the largest number of films in India, exceeding the number of films produced in Bollywood.The industry holds the Guinness World Record for the largest film production facility in the world.

Climate

The climate of Andhra Pradesh varies considerably, depending on the geographical region. Summers last from March to June. In the coastal plain, the summer temperatures are generally higher than the rest of the state, with temperature ranging between 20 °C and 41 °C. July to September is the season for tropical rains. About one third of the total rainfall is brought by the northeast monsoon. October and November see low-pressure systems and tropical cyclones form in the Bay of Bengal which, along with the northeast monsoon, bring rains to the southern and coastal regions of the state.

November, December, January, and February are the winter months in Andhra Pradesh. Since the state has a long coastal belt the winters are not very cold. The range of winter temperature is generally 12 °C to 30 °C. Lambasingi in Visakhapatnam district is the only place in South India which receives snowfall because of its location as at 1,000 m (3,300 ft) above the sea level. It is also nicknamed as the Kashmir of Andhra Pradesh and the temperature ranges from 0 °C to 10 °C.

^FOOD 

Andhra Pradesh is known for its spicy food all around the country. The inspiration behind such delicious variations of food lies in the opulent culture of the state, where exotic food is being prepared in the kitchen of the Nawabs since the year of its origin. The Andhra cuisine comprises of both mouth-watering vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes. The famous Hyderabadi dishes include appetising Biryanis, delectable rice and some tangy pickles and chutneys.

We bring to you, a variety of delicious dishes, you must eat at least once in your lifetime!

1. Pulihora

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An exotic version of tamarind rice, also known as Chitrannam, is enriched with spicy flavours to give it a sour and salty taste at the same time. One of the main ingredients is tamarind along with curry leaves, tomatoes, and mustard seeds. Pulihora finds its place in kitchens often during festivities and special gatherings. Try the authentic tamarind rice to get a taste of real Andhra cuisine.

2. Chepa Pulusu

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A variety of fish curry, popularly known as Chepa Pulusu in the state of Andhra is a hot piquant dish with fish tossed in tamarind sauce and assorted with spicy flavourings and tamarind juice to give it a die-for taste. Prepared using a generous amount of oil and spicy herbs, this fish curry leaves you wanting for even more. The traditional fish gravy can be found in any restaurant serving Andhra cuisine.

3. Gongura Pickle Ambadi

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If you love the tangy taste of every pickle then you must try this fiery spicy pickle made with Ambadi leaves, otherwise known as Sorrel leaves. This tasty pickle-chutney hybrid is widely prepared in Andhra as well as in the state of Maharashtra. Well-blended with a variety of spices, this special Andhra dish can be served with flavoured rice or a pair of hot chapatis.

4. Pesarattu

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Pesarattu is prepared often for breakfasts in Andhra and regions nearby. The yummy dosa made with green moong dal is a zesty Dosa variant, loved by everyone in the state. The moong dal Dosa is served commonly with coconut chutney or chilli-tomato chutney. Visit one of the authentic Andhra food corners to get a taste of the native Pesarattu flavour.

5. Andhra Chicken Biryani

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The state that gave a whole new definition and taste to Biryani is famous for giving birth to some of the most palatable Biryani and Pulao recipes. The original mouth-watering Andhra Chicken Biryani uses a rich combination of aromatic herbs and spices to give the long thin rice grains, a succulent taste. Tossed vegetables are mixed with Chicken to bring the taste it is best known for. Try the Andhra Chicken Biryani for your lunch to have a juicy fulfilling experience.

6. Gutti Vankaya Koora

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Prepared by using stuffed eggplant, this curry is a special Andhra dish cooked in every other house in Andhra. The tender eggplants are stuffed with roasted spicy herbs and seasonings to give to a perfect delicious taste. The curry is thick and gives a fresh smell of tamarind and mustard seeds, that will lure you from even a distance. It can be served with aromatic rice or ghee Rotis.

 7. Punugulu

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Who isn’t fond of a crunchy crispy snack during rainy evenings? Next time when you crave for a delicious snack to eat with your cup of coffee, try the popular yet simple Andhra snack, Punugulu. Prepared with Idli batter and deep fried till golden brown, the mouth-watering snack is served with coconut ginger chutney for a perfect lip-smacking taste.

8. Curd Rice

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No Andhra meal is complete without a serving of the light yet yummy curd rice! Widely popular in Andhra as well as Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala, curd rice is loved by anyone who gets the taste of it. It can be easily prepared at homes by using a simple recipe with unsweetened curd, rice, and assorted vegetables. To give it a fine taste, it is often blended with ginger, chopped green chillies and curry leaves. The best part of curd rice that gives it a tangy salty taste is the Tadka seasoned using cumin seeds, mustard seeds, and urad dal. It is also extremely digestible and carries plenty of health benefits.

9. Dondakaya Fry

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For all those gourmet out there, who seek homestyle recipes of Andhra, your search ends at this delicious dish. The Dondakaya Fry is a stir fry item, prepared with IvyGuord curry, also known as Parwal, Kundru, and Tondli in other languages of the country. The healthy dish is enriched with vitamins and boasts of being an amazing body detoxifier. It is prepared with nuts and spices that give it a crispy nutty taste. It can be served with hot roti or rice and rasam.

10. Bobbatlu

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If you think the Andhra cuisine is all about tangy spices and fiery chillies, then you couldn’t have been more wrong! They also have delicious items for those with a sweet tooth. Bobbatlu, also known as Puran Poli, is an all time favourite classic sweet dish prepared commonly in Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. It is considered to be very pious and is extensively prepared during important festivals and celebrations. The outer layer is prepared with wheat flour or refined flour and the inside stuffing is made with lentils and jaggery giving it a delicate and inviting taste.

11. Medu Vada

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The popular South Indian recipe has been the favourite in kitchens of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Known with a variety of names like Ulundu Vadai, Ulli Garelu and Uzhunnu Vada, the delicious doughnut-like savoury is prepared widely during all festivals and celebrations. The main ingredient is the Urad Dal, and hence the name. Try this tasty Indianized version of doughnut during the coming festivities at your home.

12. Uppindi

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Not all dishes need to be given hours of time to prepare. Some of them are rightly termed as the Bachelor’s diet and can be cooked in a couple of minutes and yet taste amazing! Uppindi or Arisi Upma, as many call it, is a popular Rava Upma dish which is easy as well as fast to prepare. It can be cooked right at your home, during those crazy rush mornings while going off to work. It is made using Rava, peanuts and different varieties of spices to give it a tasteful punch.

The next time you visit a restaurant serving an authentic Andhra cuisine, don’t forget to try one of these amazing food items to relish the taste of unique Andhra style tangy spices and seasonings.

TOURIST PLACES

The state has several beaches in its coastal districts such as, Rushikonda, Mypadu, Suryalanka etc.; caves such as, Borra Caves, Indian rock-cut architecture depicting Undavalli cavesand the country's second longest caves named as Belum Caves. The valleys and hills include, Araku Valley, Horsley Hills, Papi Hills etc. Arma Konda peak located in Visakhapatnam district is the highest peak in Eastern Ghats.

The state is home to various religious pilgrim destinations such as, Tirumala Temple, Simhachalam Temple, Annavaram, Srisailam temple, Kanaka Durga Temple, Amaravati, Srikalahasti temple, Shahi jamia masjid in Adoni, Gunadala Church in Vijayawada, Buddhist centres at Amaravati, Nagarjuna Konda etc., and many more as well.